During the migration period, the Jutes settled on the Cimbrian peninsula "north of the Angles". They conquered a large part of the peninsula, but "King Erik of Jutland" suffered a serious setback in 845 AD. But Hardegon, son of Sven, returned home from Norman England about 910 AD and turned the tide. His grandson, King Gorm, completed the conquest of Reidgotland, as the Cimbrian Peninsula was then called, which then became named Jutland. The victorious King Gorm succeeded in obtaining marriage to the Danish princess Thyra, which paved the way for their son, Harald, to become king of all Denmark.
1. Denmark takes shape out of the fog of the past
Gorm the Old is very well documented as Danish king. He is mentioned on both the Jelling rune stones and by Adam of Bremen, Roskilde Chronicle, Jomsvikinge Saga, Olav Tryggvason's Saga, Saxo Grammaticus, Sven Aggesen, Hauksbok Fagrskinna and Knytlinge Saga. His reign as a Danish king is beyond doubt, and the tradition is that he is the first king in the royal line.
Timeline of Denmark's history based on royal lines - They all descend from "Hardegon, son of a certain Sven" who conquered at least part of Jutland around the year 917 as told by Adam of Bremen under Bishop Hoger . A division of the line of kings and thus the history of Denmark into some natural groups or dynasties makes history manageable.
Besides, it's true. One can recognize some characteristic groups, such as the early Viking kings, whom I call the Knytlings, separated from Svend Estridsen's time by the reign of Magnus the Good. The civil war in the Svend, Knud and Valdemar period separates the period of Svend Estridsen and his sons from the Valdemars. The kingless time naturally separates the Valdemars from Valdemar Atterdag and the union kings.
The Oldenborg royal family was introduced quite undramatically, because Christian 1. was a descendant of Valdemar Atterdag.
The Union's final downfall with the Stockholm Blood Bath, the fall of Christian 2. the Count's Feud and the Lutheran Reformation is a clear and inevitable dividing line in history.
The ancient electoral monarchy was abolished by a coup in 1660 and replaced by absolute royal power. The Oldenborg kings were involved in both electoral monarchy and absolute royal rule. Furthermore, it was an Oldenborg king, namely Frederik 7. who abolished the absolute monarchy in 1848 and introduced the constitutional monarchy, where royal power is hereditary and defined in the constitution. Drawing own work.
On the small Jelling runestone the text reads: "kurmr kunukr karthi kubl thusi aft thurui kunu sina tanmarkar but", which can be translated into modern English as: "Gorm king made memorials these after Thyra wife his Denmark's bod".
The Knytlings were the royal family of the Jutes.
The Jutes were a small people few in numbers, who came from Asia during the migration period at about the same time as the Asia men, as Snorri mentions, came to Funen, the Danes to Sjælland and the Svears came to the area at Mälarn. They were apparently related groups, but mutual rivals.
In the century after the birth of Christ, Augustus and Tacitus gave an account of which tribes lived on the Cimbrian Peninsula, and they do not mention anything about Jutes.
First the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 449 AD mentions Jutes and says that they came from Germania.
Procopius tells about 550 that the returning Heruli passed "the nations of the Danes".
The Venerable Bede tells in the year 700 that the Jutes lived north of the Angles.
Rimpert tells in the Vita Anskarii that King Erik of Jutland attacked Hamburg in 845 and destroyed the churches. But Erik was killed by Vikings, and after that his only son, Erik 2. was left as regent over only a small part of the peninsula, which was perhaps the Jutes' original territory "north of the Angles".
Alfred the Great geography from about 880 tells: "West of the South Danes lies the arm of the sea that surrounds Britannia, and to the north of them is the arm of the sea called the Eastern Sea; to the east and to the north of them are the North Danes, both on the continent and on islands". The south Danes may very well have been the Jutes.
Adam of Bremen speaks around 1070 about "those Danes who are called Jutes".
Adam tells of Hardegon, son of Sven, and a little later of Hardecnudt Wurm. Some historians believe that a "filius" was omitted from Adam's text, so that it should have read Hardecnudt filius Wurm, meaning Wurm, Hardecnudt's son. This is supported by the fact that Knud the Holy in his deed of gift to the cathedral in Lund from 1085 calls himself Knud 4. from which it follows that there must have been a Knud 1. or a Hardeknud 1. before Gorm, which Adam also tells.
The Jutland king Gorm succeeded in obtaining a marriage with Thyra - a princess from Denmark - that is the kingdom of the Danes in Sjælland and in Scania, as Alfred's geography says "both on the continent and on islands". They got two sons. The eldest got a name from the royal line of the Jutes, namely Knud, while the youngest got a name from the royal line of the Danes, namely Harald. But Knud fell on a Viking raid and Harald became king, first in Jutland and later he "won all of Denmark and Norway" because his mother was the distinguished Danish princess Thyra and under the impression of the threat from the emperor in the south.
Erik, Knud and Sven seem to be traditional names in the royal family of the Jutes, but the name Harald comes from the Danes.
Viking sword on display at Vikingemuseum Haithebau. Photo viciarg Wikipedia.
And, on the big Jelling Stone stands: "Haraltr kunukr bath kaurua kubl thausi aft kurm fathur sin auk aft thaurui muthur sina sa haraltr ias sar uan tanmaurk ala auk nuruiak auk tani karthi kristna", which can be translated into: "King Harald ordered this monument made in memory of Gorm his father and Thyra his mother, that Harald who himself won Denmark all and Norway and the Danes made Christians."
We can deduce from these runic inscriptions that Gorm was king, his wife was named Thyra, and she died before him, and they had a son named Harald, who became King of whole Denmark.
Sven Aggesen wrote that in his time - about 250 years later - there was a royal seat in Jelling. The city is listed in Valdemar's Jordebog - a kind of Danish Doomsday-book - as a royal estate. And the Jelling monuments show the royal family's connection to the place. Moreover, recent archæological excavations have revealed extensive palisade constructions. There are good reasons to believe that Jelling was the early Knytlings' royal seat.
2. The Knytlings came from Viking Area in England
The most reliable account of Gorm's ancestors is that of Adam of Bremen; he had it directly from king Sven Estridsen, who, one must believe, knew his ancestors. He wrote: "The Danish king, whom we must long remember, and who remembered all the exploits of the barbarians, right as if they were written down" - "Something the famous Danish king lectured us, when I asked him about it. After Olaph, he said, the prince of the Sveons, who reigned in Denmark with his sons, Sigerich was put in his place. And when he had reigned a short time, Hardegon, Suein's son, came from Northmannia and robbed him of the kingdom." This happened in 917 or 918. Since the Knytlings often later use the name Sven, we must assume that this Sven from Northmannia was the ancestor of the Knytlings.
The Vale of York Viking Hoard was found in 2007 by David and Andrew Whelan near the town of Harrogate in North Yorkshire. It comes precisely from the 900's. The treasure contains 617 silver coins and 65 other things. The coins are from Sarmakand in modern Uzbekistan, North Africa, Afghanistan, Russia, Ireland, Scandinavia and Western Europe. Photo JMiall Wikipedia.
A saga says that the Knytlings descended from Regnar Lodbrog. When Harald Bluetooth in Olav Tryggvesons Saga is confronted with Gold-Harald's claim for half the kingdom, it is said: "By this claim Harald became very angry and said that no man had demanded it from King Gorm, the father of his, that he should be half-king in Denmark, nor his father, Horda-Knut or of Sigurd Snake-in-eye or Regnar Lodbrog."
Adam tells that a few years before Bishop Unni of Bremen and Hamburg died in Birka in the year 936 he visited Denmark: "Hardecnudth Wurm ruled the Danes during that time. He was, I must say, a horrible worm and not a little hostile to Christian people. He was scheming to completely eradicate the Christianity that existed in Denmark, expelling the God's ministers from his country, and he killed even very many of them under torments." This indicates that King Wurm is identical to Gorm the Old.
Many believe that this Nortmannia, from where Hardegon came, must have been either Norway or Normandy in France. However, the historian Erik Kromann has argued that Hardegon, Sven's son, came from Viking areas in England. The names Hardicanute and Gorm clearly point to the Norman Viking-kingdoms in England, he said.
The Viking Guthrum in "The Last Kingdom".
In the east of England, which would later be called the Danelaw, the Vikings proclaimed their own kings. Guthrum (Gorm) ruled in East Anglia until 890. Halfdan, a son of Ragnar Lodbrog, distributed land to his men in the Northumberland in 876 but was driven out by his own men and replaced by a new king, who had two names, Gudred and Cnut. Alternatively, there may have been two kings, so that Gudred was succeeded by Cnut. This last one is known only from coins. Gudred fell prisoner of war as a young man, but was redeemed by the Danes and then elected king of York.
Simeon of Durham says that St. Cuthbert appeared to Abbot Eadred and bade him act as follows: He had to go to the Danish army and say that he came as an envoy of the Saint. Next, he had to ask to get that boy to see, called Gudred, who was said to be the son of Hardecnut of Lethra in Sweden, and whom the Danes had sold to a widow in Hwittingaham. When he was found, and ransom for him had been paid, Eadred should bring him out to the army and let him be elected as a king on the mountain Oswiesdun putting a gold ring on his right arm. Abbot Eadred followed St. Cuthberts instructions, and the boy was unanimously acclaimed by the army and the people.
Also Adam of Bremen speaks many years later on Gudred: "As mentioned earlier, and as it is written in the Deeds of the Angles, Anglien after Gudreds death, counting from his sons Analept, Sigerih and Reginold, for almost a hundred years remained under the Danes' rule, but then Harald (Bluetooth) sent his son Hiring with an army to Anglien. He subjugated the island, but was eventually betrayed and killed by the Northumbrians."
Viking areas in England in the 800's From "Y-DNA Test - I am a Viking, OK!"
Several other chroniclers connect the names Hardeknud and Gorm with England.
Roskilde Chronicle tells of a "certain Sven, a defector from the Norwegians," who fell with a great army into England, drove the king Aldradus out of the country and took rulership. His two sons, Gorm and Hardeknud, could not be contented with England, they turned marauding against Denmark, drove King Halfdan away and shared his kingdom in such a way that Gorm got Denmark and Hardeknud England. The historical core of this story may be the situation in the Danish area in England about 877, where the Kings Cnut and Gudred reigned in the north, and Guthrum (Gorm) ruled in the south.
Saxo connects a Gorm, who was the grandfather to Gorm the Old, to England. He calls him Gorm Englishman because he was born in England. But while he took up residence in Denmark to settle matters there, the English made a rebellion, and after a bold attempt, he did never win the country back. Furthermore, Saxo lets Gorm's Queen Thyra be an English princess.
One can easily imagine that still in Sweyn Forkbeard's time a tradition existed in the Knytlinge lineage that England belonged to them, and it may have been part of Sweyn's motivation for the later conquest of England.
There are several myths about the origin of the Knytlings: In the late Olaf Tryggvason Saga, King Gormr hin Heimski's thralls find a little boy in the woods that he takes to his heart, and gives the name Canute the Found. In Jomsvikinge Saga, Gorm the Childless rules Denmark; His men find a boy in the woods, on its head was tied a silk scarf, on which was attached a large gold ring. The king took the child to his heart, called him his son and gave him the name Knud because the gold ring had been tied to his forehead with a knot. Following Sven Aggesen, Sivard, Ragnar Lodbrog's son, attacked Denmark and felled the king. He married the dead king's daughter and ordered her to name their son after her belt. As her belt was tied with a knot, the boy was named Knud.
3. The Kings Chnob and Gurd in Haithebau
But there is a piece that does not readily fit into the puzzle.
Widukind tells of the German King Henrik 1. (918-936): "When he had subjugated all the surrounding peoples, he went with an army against the Danes, who on pirate raids attacked the Frisians. He defeated them and after having made them tributary, he caused their king, named Chnuba to receive baptism."
Graphic reconstruction of Haithebau. Photo: Les Raids des Vikings.
A notice in the Korvej year-books for the year 934 provides a dating: "King Henrik subjugated the Danes".
Readily, it does not fit with that "Hardegon, Svein's son from Northmannia" deprived Sigerich the kingdom around 917, and thereafter his descendants Hardecnut, Gorm and Harald ruled Denmark without interruption.
Adam tells about King Gnupa in a section dealing with archbishop Adalgars time, which was the years from 888 to 909 - before the "Norman" invasion - referring to Sweyn Estridson: "After him came Olaph, who came from Sueonia and achieved rulership over the Danes' kingdom with violence and weapons, and he had many sons, of which Chnob and Gurd achieved rulership after the father's death."
Furthermore, King Chnuba and his son Sigtryg are documented by something as solid as two rune stones, which are found near Haithebau that bear the rather identical inscriptions: "Asfrid made this kumbl after Sigtrygg her and Gnupa's son" and "Asfrid Odinkardatter made this kumbl after Sigtrygg king her and Gnupa's son - Gorm carved the runes."
Sigtrygstone, the small one, was discovered in 1887. It was bricked into the wall of Gottorp Castle. The inscription is dated to around 938. Now it is exhibited in the Viking Museum Haithebau. Photo viciarg Wikipedia.
Adam has a different version than Widukind of Henrik 1.'s attack on the Danes, where King Chnuba is not mentioned: "Hardecnudth Wurm ruled the Danes during that time. He was, I must say, a horrible worm and not a little hostile to Christian people. He was scheming to completely eradicate the Christianity that existed in Denmark, expelling the God's ministers from his country, and he killed even very many of them under torments." When Henrik I moved into the country with an army: "He scared at first attack King Wurm so much that he would do what was commanded him and humbly asked for peace. After that Henrik, who thus became the victor, had put the kingdom's borders at Sliaswich, which now is called Heidaba, he installed a mark-count and commanded a colony of Saxons to settle there. All this - as reported by a certain Dane bishop, a knowledgeable man - we, as reliable as it is perceived, just as fair have given over to our church."
In fact, seven older sources tell about King Henrik's victory over the Danes, but only one of them mentions King Chnuba.
Several historians believe that Chuba really was the son of that Olaph, which " - achieved rulership over the Danes' kingdom with violence and weapons", but when he was attacked by Henrik I in 934, he ruled only a small part of Denmark around Haithebau. They highlight that the route from the fjord Slien over the river Ejder to the North Sea was Scandinavia's most important trade route that King Chnuba so controlled. It was furthermore the route that all Viking expeditions from South Scandinavia towards Western Europe took.
Illustration from Olaus Magnus' Historia from 1555, showing a ship being pulled over land. From the fjord Slien at Haithebau was only a short way across land to the rivers Trene and Ejder. By using this route merchants and Vikings avoided a long and dangerous journey north around the tip of Jutland.
By subjugating King Chuba in Haithebau and forcing the Danes there to pay tax, Henrik put a plug in the hole and made further Viking raids against Western Europe difficult. By forcing Gnupa to be baptized he isolated him politically from the rest of Denmark and Scandinavia. By taking a Viking chief in his favor and let him fight the other Vikings, King Henrik did not act differently from several other German and Frankish rulers in the past.
Chnuba and his son Sigtryg - king Asfrid and Chnuba's son - could not have ruled for long in Haithebau after this. There are several examples of Abodrit and Scandinavian rulers, who adopted Christianity, soon got serious problems with their pagan subjects. Which may be the reason for that Gorm's Queen Thyra according to tradition could be associated with Dannevirke.
4. Alfred the Great's Geography
From an additional note to Alfred the Great's translation of Orosius' Rome's history from around the year 890 can be deduced a sketch of the political situation in Southern Scandinavia. It was written only about 27 years before "Hardegon, Suein's son from Northmannia" deprived Sigerich of his kingdom:
Merchant ship from the Viking Age. Photo unknown origin.
" - to the west of Old Saxony is the mouth of the ælfe or Elbe, as also Frysan or Friesland. From hence to the north-west is that land, which is called Angle, with Sellinde, and some other parts of Dene." - and more: "To the south-west of Dene or Denmark, formerly mentioned, is that arm of the ocean which surrounds Brittania, and to the north is that arm which is called the Ostsea or East sea; to the east and north are the north Dene, or North Danes, both on the continent and on the islands."
We can believe that there were two groups of Danes, namely South Danes, who may have lived around Haithebau, and North Danes, who lived on Sjælland and Skåne. In any case, it suggests that an area partially covering Angel and Sillende constituted a political entity inhabited by South Danes. Which fits with that Chnuba and later his son Sigtrygg were kings of this area.
In another part of King Alfred's geography, the traveler Ottar tells: "South of Skiringssal a large sea cuts into the country. It is broader than any man ca see over. And on the other side, first Gotland and then Sillende. This sea stretches hundreds of mil into the country - And he told that he from Skiringssal in five days sailed to the merchant town called Haithebau. It lies between the Wends, Saxons and Angles and belongs to the Danes - When he sailed to there from Skiringssal, he had to port Denemearce, to starboard the open sea for three days; and then, two days before he came to Haithebau, he had to starboard Gotland and Sillende and many islands. In these regions, the Angles lived before they came to this country. And in these two days, he had to port, the islands, which belong to Denemearce." From which we can deduce that Halland, Sjælland, some other islands and Haithebau belonged to the Danes. Thje Cimbrian Peninsula was still called Gotland, and did not seem to have belonged to "Denemearce".
There are several opinions about which route Ottar sailed. He sailed down the coast of Halland, north of Zealand, east of Funen, which he called Gotland, west of Langeland and either south or north of ærø.
Wulfstan sailed past several islands without mentioning them, for example Fehmarn and Rügen. It was apparently not common among seafarers to have a very detailed knowledge of coastal waters.
This is confirmed by another traveler, Wulfstan, who recounts that "he traveled from Haithebau, and that he was in Truso in seven days and nights, and the ship all the way went under sail - Wendland was on his starboard side and to port he had Langeland, Lolland, Falster and Skåne. These countries all belong to Denemearcan."
Both Adam of Bremen and the Roskilde chronicle say that sometimes the country had been divided between several kings, and sometimes it was collected as one kingdom. In 1157 Denmark as a natural thing was divided into three parts, which were ruled by respectively Sven, Knud and Valdemar.
It is completely conceivable that in Gorm the Old's time, the country was divided into at least three parts 1) An area called Denmark, which included Halland, Skåne, Sjælland, Lolland, Falster, Langeland and Ærø 2) The area around Haithebau ruled by Chnuba and Sigtryg 3) The rest of Jutland, which was then called Gotland, may for the most part have been inhabited by various traditional Gothic peoples, as had been the case for many hundreds of years, but also the original smaller area of the Jutes, "north of the Angles".
Saxo describes repeatedly Sjælland, as the island in the middle of the kingdom, big and fertile and populated by brave inhabitants.
Odysseus was washed up on the beach on the island of Ogygia, which means the navel of the sea, that is the island in the middle of the ocean. Here he was held back by the nymph Calypso, daughter of the Titan Atlas, who gave name to the Western Sea, the Atlantic Ocean (Herodotus: Atlantis Thalassa). By sorcery, Calypso kept him as her lover for seven long years, until he managed to escape to the neighboring island by the goddess Athena's help. The ancient authors Strabo and Plutarch believe that the island was located in the Western Ocean, and this author believes that Calypso's island was Sjælland, the island in the middle, and Odysseus met the Nordic Bronze Age people - and ever since, the island enjoyed great prestige as the island in the middle, the seat of ancient kings.
The name of the island, Sjæl-land (Soul-land), basically means the same thing, as the soul is a person's real center.
Gorm the Old's son, Harald Bluetooth "won Denmark all", which must include the sacred island of Sjælland. When he died, he was not buried in Jelling next to his ancestors, which one would expect, because now he had become a real Danish king, and therefore he should be buried on Sjælland - probably also to connect this island's inhabitants closer to the Knytlinge genus.
5. Thyra Danebod
On the small Jelling runestone we can read: "kurmr kunukr karthi kubl thusi aft thurui kunu sina tanmarkar but", which in English says: "Gorm king made this monument after Thyra his wife Denmark's bod"..
The small Jelling runestone, respectively, front and back. The stone's original location is not known with certainty. In the 1600's, it lay the front of the church door. Photo Jürgen Howaldt Wikipedia.
We know very little about Thyra. If we assume that her son Harald Bluetooth was about 60 years old, when he was killed in 986-87, he must have been born around 926. We believe that Thyra was about 20 years old, when she had her second son, which will lead to that she was born around 905-910. The only other thing we know is that she died before Gorm. The large burial chamber in the North Mound was probably intended for both spouses, and wood from there is dendrochronologically determined to have been felled in 958 AD. and therefore she has at least lived to this year, probably some years longer, as the grave may have been prepared years in advance. She probably reached a rather high age of 50-60 years for the time.
It was originally the historian Erik Arup, who first translated Thyra's epithet "tanmarkar but" into the "adornment of Denmark". It was certainly inspired by Sven Aggesen, who called her "Decus Datie" (Denmark's ornamental) or "Regni Decus" (kingdom's ornamental). But later detailed studies of Scandinavian dialects have failed to demonstrate that "but" or "bod" should mean ornamental. By all accounts "bod" means refurbishment, replacement, improvement or recovery. This meaning can still be found in the term "bøde garn" (prepare/repair fishing nets).
There was a tradition that royal sons chose their wives from other peoples and nations. Harald Bluetooth and Sveyn Forkbeard married Slavic princesses, Canute married Emma of Normandy. When Thyra got the epithet "tanmarkar but" it was probably because she came from that Denemearce, which according to Alfred's geography consisted of most Danish islands and Scania with Sjælland as the center. "Denmark's bod" may have meant the improvement from Denmark.
Thyra Danebod in charge of the construction of the defence dyke Dannevirke. Painting by Rasmus Christiansen from 1863.
It is striking that Gorm and Thyra are described very differently in Scandinavian sagas and chronicles.
Gorm they do not think much of. In Jomsvikinge Saga he is called Gorm the Heimski, which means a person, who does not know the big world. At Sven Aggesen he is called Gorm Løghæ, which describes a limp and weak ruler, who lives a dissolute life. Historiæ Norwegiæ calls him Gormo Stultissimus. Saxo credits him with some initiative, since he here is described as a grim Christian pursuer, who levels the churches to the ground.
Thyra, by contrast, is pictured as intelligent and determined. In Jomsvikinge Saga is told that Gorm is courting for Klak-Harald's daughter Thyra: "Over Holseteland ruled at that time an earl, named Harald, who was called by the nickname Klak-Harald; he was a wise man. He had a daughter named Tyra, who in intelligence surpassed all other women, and interpreted dreams better than anyone else; she was also very beautiful. In cases about government of his land the earl put his whole trust on his daughter, and let her advise in all subjects together with him, and he loved her very much." It is reported that she "was the wisest woman and interpreted dreams better than men. Therefore she was allowed even to answer the suitor herself, because", the father said, "She's much smarter than I -"
Thyra Danebod tells Gorm about the death of their son Knud. Saxo reports that the aging Gorm had sworn to kill the one, who told him about Knuds death. Thyra took resort to cunning. She gave Gorm miserable clothes and other things showing grief as they did back then. So Gorm said: "Do you report to me the death of Knud?", and Thyra replied: "You said that, not me". Painting by August Carl Vilhelm Thomsen (1813-86). Uploaded by dllu to Wikipedia.
As we want to connect Klak-Harald and Thyra with that Denmark, which had its center on Sjælland, it's a bit disturbing that Klak-Harald in Jomsvikinge Saga is the Earl of Holseteland, that is Holsten. But we must remember that Vita Anskarii says: "But because King Harald sometimes could not be with peace in his kingdom, then the above mentioned Emperor gave him a fief beyond the Elbe, that he might flee thither if it perhaps became necessary for him".
Jomsviking Saga continues praising Thyra, "and Thyra was considered the wisest woman, who ever came to Denmark, and was called the Danish bod or salvation." Three times Klak-Harald is invited to celebrate Christmas with King Gorm, the saga tells, and three times he stops along the way because of ominous visions. Gorm became angry, but Thyra got him appeased. Following this saga, their son Harald killed his brother Knud at Limfjorden, and Thyra found a clever way to tell Gorm.
Thyra and Gorm's sons were named Knud and Harald. It is easy to see that the oldest, Knud, got his name from his father's family, the Knytlings, and the youngest, Harald, got his name from his mother's family. Knud fell in a Viking raid against Ireland or England, and therefore the younger son became king in Jelling.
The royal name, Harald, was originally associated with Sjælland, the island in the middle, which from ancient times enjoyed a special dignity. We remember that Harald, who in the year 826 were baptized at the emperor in Mainz, "sailed to his homeland to take over the government there," which means that his homeland must have been an island. Also think of Harald Hildetand, who following the tradition lived in Lejre near Roskilde on Sjælland - indicating that Harald was a traditional king's name on the island. Thyra was apparently a princess from that Denmark, which Ottar and Wulfstan described, where the main island was Sjælland. A king ruling all the Dana land around the Baltic Sea estuary into the western ocean should necessarily be situated on this venerable island like an ancient emperor necessarily should rule from Rome.
Thyra Danabod manages the construction of Dannevirke. Drawing by Louis Moe.
When Gorm's son Harald Bluetooth died, he was not buried in Jelling next to his ancestors that otherwise would have been expected. He was buried in Roskilde on Sjælland, for now, he was a real Danish king.
It is easy to imagine that this glorification of Thyra at the expense of Gorm originally was a political strategy that aimed to make Thyra something very special in the eyes of the inhabitants of eastern Denmark, from where she came. Because, if she was something completely unique, so her sons also would be, and that could bring them in question as Danish rulers. They were already of royal Danish blood because they were the sons of a famous Danish princess. The historian Peter Sawyer is said to have made a similar theory.
Saxo gives Thyra the credit for the building of the defence dyke Dannevirke. If it was Gorm who originally arranged for his queen Thyra to be attached to an expansion and improvement of Dannevirke, it was a propaganda masterpiece. The rampart represented a defense against a threatening imperial crusade not only for the benefit of Jutland but for the benefit of all kingdoms in the Nordics including that time Denmark and Norway. Thereby Thyra's son with the Danish-sounding name Harald also came to stand as a defender of the entire Nordic region.
Gorm and his advisers were not so old and dull, which later time will make them, because by this clever strategy he really succeeded to get his son Harald elected as a king, also in eastern Denmark.
6. Gorm the Old
Adam of Bremen reports that in the year 936, or shortly before, Archbishop Unni of Hamburg traveled to Denmark, and here he met the king of the Danes, Hardecnudth Wurm. Adam wrote: "He was, I must say, a horrible worm and not a little hostile to Christian people. He was scheming to completely eradicate the Christianity that existed in Denmark, expelling the God's ministers from his country, and he killed even very many of them under torments." Some, among them the author, believe that Adam forgot a "filius" in the Latin text so that it should have been "Hardecnudth filius Wurm", which would mean Wurm, son of Hardecnudth. Wurm was, without doubt, the king, called Gorm the Old, whom the Jelling stone simply calls "Gorm king". When Unni visited him, he had perhaps been on the throne for some years.
The big Jelling runestone is decorated on three sides. One side is engraved with runes, another side is decorated with an animal that fights against snakes, and on the third side of the stone is a relief, probably imagining Jesus on the cross - Photo Erik Christensen Wikipedia.
Both Jelling rune stones and several sagas and chronicles document that Gorm's queen was called "Thurui", "Thaurui", "Tyre" and the like, which we interpret as Thyra. We can believe that Thyra was a Danish princess from Sjælland, who enjoyed an immense respect in the kingdom of the Knytlings in Jylland around Jelling.
In addition to the sons, Knud and Harald, Gorm and Thyra got a daughter named Gunhild.
Saxo's description of the king is not very flattering: "Although he was considered to be exceptionally tall, then however, his mind only slightly corresponded to his body. For he was to such degree satisfied with his royal power that he found greater joy to protect it than increasing it, figured it better to guard his own than to stretch out after others and preferred to stick to, what he had than letting it grow by new winnings.".
The Jelling mounds - The north mound to the right, where Gorm was buried. To the left on the other side of the church lies the south mound in which there never have been any burials. The rune stones are located exactly midway between the two mounds. The Jelling monuments are declared as UNESCO World Heritage. Photo Pinterest. Photo Vejle Amts Folkeblad.
In the long saga of Olaf Tryggvason is stated that: "When Hardicanute's son Gorm grew up, he was the most handsome man you could see before your eyes, he was also big and strong, and excellent in all skills; however he was not considered to possess the wisdom that his relatives before him had been said to have."
And in Knytlinge Saga we read: "Very wise, he was not (Canute the Great), just as little as king Sven, whom he in everything was like, or as before Harald and Gorm, who neither were particular wise."
Heimskringlas Olaf Tryggvason Saga has greater respect for king Gorm. It says that the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair sent men to fetch a woman named Gyda Eriksdatter that he would like to have as a mistress. She told the men that she would not sacrifice her virginity for a local small king: "But it seems to me strange that no king can be found that will acquire Norway so that he has monarchy over that land, in a similar way as King Gorm has it in Denmark or Erik in Uppsala", and she sends the men out the door with the message that she would never marry Harald until he has conquered all of Norway and ruled the kingdom just as freely as King Eric ruled Sweden or King Gorm Denmark, "for only then he seems to me to be called king of nations".
Gyda answers Harald Fairhair's men - Photo Haralds Hårfager's Saga in Heimskringla drawing by Halvdan Egidius.
Olav Tryggvason Saga also contests the image of Gorm as an old and lethargic king: "King Gorm came with his army into that kingdom of Denmark, which was called Reidgoteland, but now is called Jylland, against the king, who then ruled therefore; he was called Gnupa. They had some battles together but thus it ended that Gorm felled the king and acquired his whole kingdom. Next Gorm encountered against the king of the name Silfraskalli and had fightings and battles with him, and King Gorm still got the victory, and finally he felled that king, then he went further up in Jylland and thus he came with war that he destroyed all kings right south to Sli, and also he won a large kingdom in Wendland. Gorm had many battles against the Saxons, and he became the mightiest king."
It sounds like that when Hardegon, son of Sven, landed in Jylland in the year 917, the political situation there was fairly chaotic. Besides Sigerich, there were at least two kings namely Gnupa and Silfraskalli, both of which - along with other smaller gotic kings - were defeated by the Knytlings, latest by King Gorm.
Queen Margrethe II speaks in Jelling Church at King Gorm's reburial in the year 2000. Photo unknown origin.
Also Adam of Bremen speaks of battles against the Saxons: "Also the Danes, who had Slavs to help, ravaged first Saxony beyond the Elbe, then also on this side of the Elbe and gave the Saxons great horror."
The battles with the the Saxons is also confirmed by Dudo of St. Quentin, who recounts some negotiations between the German King Heinrich and the French King Louis in the year 942, where the Danish-speaking William of Normandy was present: "While the kings talked in private, Duke Herman of Saxen suddenly began addressing Wilhelm in Danish. Then the Norman Duke said: "Who taught you the Danish language that the Saxons otherwise do not understand?" He replied: "The warlike and excellent offspring of your weapon-skilled family line has against my will taught me Danish." William: - "Why against your will?" Herman: - "Because they regularly captured the fortresses in my duchy, delivered many battles against me and carried me off as a prisoner of war to their country, and therefore I learned it against my will."
Also the kings' saga, Fagrskinna, shows great respect for King Gorm and suggests that Gorm was a very active king, who extended the Knytlings' area in Jutland. When Gold Harald came home to Harald Bluetooth's royal seat from a Viking expedition, he claimed half of the kingdom, and Harald Bluetooth sought Haakon Jarl's advice. He answered the king: "Your father Gorm was so great a man in his kin that he acquired many kings' rule. This example Harald should follow, he should get Gold Harald another kingdom, which is not less than Denmark, because it would your father, Gorm, have done that he would not let his power diminish by his mighty kinsmen, but rather have increased their (power), and in that respect he would have taken any kingdom."
Later, said Haakon to King Harald: "Your father Gorm acquired a large kingdom that his father had not had. What kingdom shall you my lord get, which are as large or larger than Denmark, which your father won under him? It would now be a noble deed to acquire Norway and avenge his foster son."
A silver goblet that was found in the otherwise empty burial chamber in Jellings North Mound in 1820. The goblet is 4.3 cm high and cast from almost pure silver. It is decorated on the outside with Germanic animal ornaments. The cup must have been a grave gift and suggests that someone was buried here and it was probably Gorm the Old and his queen Thyra. The cup must have been overlooked when the tomb was looted sometime in the past​. Photo vikingstoday.com.
In one version of Olav Tryggvesson's Saga, Gorm's eldest son is named Knud Dana-Ast. It is reasonable to guess that it stands for Knud Dana-as-æt (æt menans kin) - Dana from his mother and As from his father's kin. He died before Gorm and therefore he did not become king. It is said that Knud and Harald, Gorm's sons, came to England with an army and conquered Northumbria, saying that it was their land of inheritance, which their ancestors had ruled. King Athelstan went against them with a large army, and they met in battle north of Klyfland, where many were slain on both sides. Some time later Gorm's sons went up to Skardeborg and on to York. Knud and others bathed, and he was killed by an arrow. When King Athelstan approached with a large army, the Danes sailed home.
Jomsvikinge Saga says that Knud was killed by his brother Harald at Limfjorden.
Saxo believes that Knud was killed by an arrow from the darkness under a siege of Dublin "when he watched the play, which was held at nighttime."
Following Historia Norwegi the daughter Gunhild was married to the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair's oldest son Erik Bloodaxe. This is supported by that Gunhild named one of her sons Gorm, which otherwise was a rare name. She is described in the sagas as the most beautiful among women, but small in stature. By Harald Fairhair's death in 933, his son Erik was elected as Norwegian king; however, he only enjoyed the dignity in two years, then he was expelled from Norway because of his rough behavior. Then he became king of York until about 948 when he was ousted by the newly elected English king Eadred. Erik Bloodaxe was killed, and Gunhild fled with their many sons. This ended the Viking domination in York.
The Roskilde chronicle reports: "This Gorm was Harald's father; Harald ruled the kingdom during his father's lifetime for 15 years, and after his father's death he ruled for 50 years". Such a long period, when Harald was co-king with his father, will explain Gorm's nickname, "the old man", since he would then be the older of two kings. But the length of Harald's reign is probably exaggerated.
The far later King Niels, who also ruled Denmark for many years assisted by his famous son, Magnus the Strong, was also nicknamed "the old", as he was the older of the two kings.
7. The Jelling Construction
Sagas, legends and chronicles tell a lot about the kings of Lejre on Zealand, while the royal seat of the Knytlings in Jelling is largely not mentioned, although the large burial mounds and runestones clearly testify that the place was an important political center in the Viking Age.
The governor of the duchies, Henrik Rantzau, commissioned a copper engraving of the monuments in Jelling in 1591 - the oldest known image of the mounds and the large Jelling stone. The northern mound is on the left with the hole in the top left by grave robbers in the past, which was then filled with water. The South Mound is on the right. Note that there is a stone on the South Mound. It must be the little Jelling Stone. The large Jelling stone stands exactly in the middle between the two hills, as it has always done.
It was not until the year 1185 that Svend Aggesens mentioned Jelling in his history of Denmark: " - When the famous queen, together with her husband, the king, had completed their years, their son Harald Bluetooth, who also inherited the crown, according to the custom of his pagan countrymen, had both his parents buried in two identical twin mounds as proud tombstones, close to the royal court in Jelling."
In 1820, local peasants in Jelling found a wooden burial chamber made of oak in the North Mound. One can see the dividing plank in the middle, which divides the wide chamber into two parts, as it was intended for two people. Copper engraving from 1821 after ink drawing by H.G.F. Holm..
Saxo, who was almost his contemporary, does not mention Jelling directly, telling about Harald's burial of his mother Thyra: " - and Harald had her laid to rest with the greatest splendor and buried close to the father's grave under general national mourning, for there was not a house where people did not grieve bitterly over her passing and believed that with her death the welfare of the whole country had perished. Where the church now stands, you see the graves of the two spouses, one on each side of it."
There is little doubt that in the early Christian period, let's say the Middle Ages, many priests and monks must have regarded the period prior to Christianity as some indifferent paganism.
It was not until 1586 that Frederik 2's govenor at Koldinghus, Caspar Markdanner, raised the great Jelling stone, so that it returned to honor and dignity. Until now it had been lying upside down, with the text downwards.
A bautastone bing removed from Jelling Cemetery in the early 1900s. A common way to get rid of large stones that were in the way of cultivation was to dig a large hole next to the stone and then tip it into the hole. This is precisely what has happened to many of the bautastones at Jelling Cemetery. Findings of bricks in the holes show that the excavations were carried out long after the Viking Age. Photo Jelling Monumenterne by Sten Hvass.
The North Mound was built up over a bronze-age mound. From ancient times it has been called the Queen Thyra's mound. In 1820, local peasants found an empty grave chamber, which has been dated to the winter of 958-959. It is generally believed that the tomb originally contained Gorm the Old human remains that already in Harald's time were moved to a Christian burial in the church.
The South Mound, which from ancient times has been called King Gorm's tomb, was the subject of extensive excavations in 1941-42. The excavators dug down to the bottom and found no grave. At the bottom, however, two slightly curved rows of very large stones were found. On the stones were preserved moss and similar vegetation, which showed that they had been there for some time before the South Mound was built. A few bits of wood found in the bottom of the mound have been dated to the year 970. On Henrik Rantzau's engraving from 1591 is shown a stone on top of the mound, which the author thinks is the small Jelling stone.
Ship tumulus at Glavendrup west of Otterup on the island of Fyn from the same period as the Jelling Mounds. The big stones are set up in the form of a ship at one end is a little mound and here stands the Glavendrup rune stone. In Jelling was a similar stone ship with a mound at one end, namely, the South Mound, only the stones and the mound are much larger. One may imagine that the small Jelling stones, in the same way, have been standing on this mound. Photo: Kaare Thor Olsen Wikipedia.
The Ship Tumulus - The two slightly curved rows of standing stones in the bottom of the South Mound made some to think about that also in other places in the area very large stones had been encountered, and they could be part of a ship tumulus. Using a cemetery map, a tombstone protocol and old accounts, Steen Wulff Andersen from Vejle Museum managed to locate the occurrence of even more large stones, which together turned out to be a 370 m long ship tumulus. The ship tumulus has not been convincingly dated, but it must necessarily have been built before the construction of the South mound year 970. It seems very likely that it was built prior to or in connection with the erection of the North Mound in the years 958-959.
French drawing, probably from the 1800s, showing the excavation of stones at Jelling Cemetery. Photo Wikimedioc.com.
In 1771 the cartoonist Søren Abildgaard visited Jelling and in his diary, he wrote: "On the eastern side of the Queen's mound in Lars Sognefoged's piece of land, where some large boulders lie in a row from the South to the North - "
It is said that the small Jelling Runestone in the late Middle Ages was used as a kind of bench at the church door and was first moved to its present location at some time between 1627 and 1639. It is not known with certainty, where it originally stood. On Henrik Rantzau's engraving from 1591 is shown a stone on top of the South Mound, which most likely is the small Jelling Stone. The text on the stone reads in modern language: "King Gorm made these runes after Thyra his wife Denmark's bod."
Jelling anlægget set fra luften. De hvide prikkede linjer markerer forløbet af skibssætningen og den rhombe formede palisade. Den tynde gule linje er rhombens diagonaler, som skærer ret perfekt i Nordhøjen gravkammer, som således er det geometriske centrum for hele anlægget. Gorm og Thyra kom således til at hvile midt i skibet på samme måde som de afdøde høvdinge i de rigtige skibsbegravelser, såsom Ladby og Oseberg og som Ibn Fadlan beskriver en vikingebegravelse i Rusland. Efter Hvass 2011.
The palisade - In connection with the excavation of the ship tumulus in 2006, archæologists found traces of a very strongly built palisade that surrounded the entire Jelling site. That is about a stockade with a total length of 1.4 km, which deviates only a few meters from a perfect rhombus shape; The sides are almost parallel with the longitudinal axis of the ship tumulus and the rhombus' diagonals intersect at a right angle very precisely right in the burial chamber in the North Mound. The side length of the palisade-fence is pretty close to 360 m so that it exactly fences in the ship tumulus. We recognize the zealous geometric perfectionism that characterize also the Viking ring fortresses, Ravning Bridge and Kovirke.
Postholes from the palisade in Jelling. For each about one meter, there were support posts, which undoubtedly have had connection with horizontal members higher up the palisade. Photo: Jelling Monumenterne by Sten Hvass.
The individual vertical posts had a cross section of 15 x 35 cm. They were dug 1.20 to 1.5 m deep into the ground with stone and clay on both sides, which indicates a height of about 3 m. On both sides of the palisade, support posts were placed with about one meter in between, which, no doubt, have had connection with horizontal longitudinal members, that kept the vertical planks in alignment.
In the northern part of the palisade has been a gate. Outside and inside the gate were postholes, suggesting that it has been covered.
Postholes from a house of Trelleborg type found in Jelling. The Jelling houses had "porches" at the entrances. Photo: Jelling Monumenterne by Sten Hvass.
Pieces of wood from the palisade, which were preserved in the pond Smededammen, have been dated to year 968.
Houses of Trelleborg type - Post holes from three longhouses with the distinctive curved walls were also found inside the palisade. One of the longhouses is located in line with another longhouse, which was found in 2007 along the north palisade at a distance of approximately 13 m from the palisade. The two other longhouses are situated along the eastern part of the palisade. They have the same layout and size as the houses in the Viking ring fortress Trelleborg but differ in that they have a sort of porch at the entrances, and the two interior partitions are located a little differently.
Remnants of the palisade in the pond, Smededammen. Photo: Medieval Histories.
The North Mound with the burial chamber came into being in the winter of 958-959. The ship tumulus is not dated, but we can believe that it latest was built in connection with the North Mound. The palisade was built in the year 968. The South Mound came in 970. The houses are not exactly dated.
In the ship tumulus in Glavendrup at Otterup on the island of Fyn, the rune stone is erected on a mound in one end of the stone ship. We must believe that the tomb was in the middle of the ship, as it would be in a real Viking ship, such as the Ladby ship. The ship tumulus in Jelling also has a mound at one end, namely the South Mound - but no rune stone on that mound. However, we have a stray rune stone that nobody knows with certainty where originally has been placed, namely the small Jelling stone.
It would be very logically if the small Jelling runestone had been located on the South Mound, which is located exactly at one end of the ship.
The inscriptions on the Glavendrup stone and the small Jelling stone also recall each other, "Ragnhild erected this stone after Alle - " and: "King Gorm made these runes after Thyra - ", and they are both found in connection with a stone ship. Besides, on Rantzau's engraving from the year 1591 is shown a stone on top of the mound, which most likely is the small Jelling Rune Stone.
The reconstructed burial chamber in the North Mound made by the cartoonist Jacob Kornerup in 1861 in connection with King Frederik VII's excavation led by Worsaæ. There is a dividing-plank in the middle of the room separating it into two departments - as it was designed for two persons.
The chamber in the North Mound was very large, about 2.6 x 6.75 m or 17 m2. It is actually rather big for one person, even a king. It must have been built in advance to accommodate both King Gorm and his queen. It would be entirely consistent with the fame, that Thyra, in general, was surrounded with to be buried alongside her husband, the king. In addition, on a number of old drawings a partition board is shown in the middle of the chamber, indicating it was designed for two persons.
With financial support from A.P. Møller Fonden, the location of the stone ship and the course of the palisades have been marked in white concrete. The white rectangles at the back of the area represent traces of houses. In fact, the area was quite empty, as if something more was planned that never came to fruition. It is the South Mound at the bottom right and the North Mound in the middle of the picture. As said, no grave was ever found in the South Mound and therefore one can assume that both Gorm and Thyra were buried in the North Mound side by side. Photo Aarhus Cementvarefabrik.
Gorm erected a stone after Thyra. That means she died before him. She was probably laid to rest in the already prepared burial chamber in the North Mound, built from timber that was felled in 958 AD. Later Gorm also died, but it is not known when.
It is not unusual for a ruler to begin construction of his tomb while still alive. The first Qin emperor of China began building his tomb immediately when he became emperor at the age of 13. And preparations are already being made in Roskilde Cathedral for Her Majesty Queen Margrete and Prince Henrik's final resting place.
But since the burial chamber may very well have been built in advance, we can no longer rely on the dentological dating of the woodwork of the burial chamber in the search for a year for Gorm's death. But he is not mentioned in historical sources in connection with the war against Emperor Otto in 973-74. So we can believe that he died sometime between 958 and 973-74 after his wife, and he was placed with her in the North Mound.
Many believe that quite a few years later he was transferred to a Christian burial under the floor in Jelling Church.
When Jelling Church had to install district heating in 1979, it was necessary to dig up the floor. In this connection, the National Museum investigated the excavation and found the earthly remains of a man, who many believe is very likely to be Gorm the Old. The bones testify to a man with strong bones and strong eyebrow arches, who was 177 cm. tall and about 35-50 years old, when he died.
Most people believe that it is Gorm the Old's earthly remains that lie under the floor in Jelling Church. The place is shown by the fact that part of a dark stripe has been replaced by a golden stripe - Photo Wikipedia.
In an article in Skalk in 1988, Harald Andersen argued that the person under the church floor is very likely not Gorm. He believes that the reason why no human bones have been found in the North Mound is that human bones are thinner than, for example, horse bones, and therefore Gorm's earthly remains have completely decomposed and disappeared. The break-in hole in the burial mound was simply made by grave robbers sometime in the Middle Ages. His arguments are that:
- The burglary hole at the top of the Nordhøjen is a typical looting hole, of which there are many in other burial mounds; he believes that if it had been Harald Bluetooth who had dug down and taken out his father's bones, he would have used a more gentle method and not left his burial mound as such a ruin.
- Only animal bones and no human bones were found in the burial chamber in 1820, when local peasants dug into the hole, but this, according to Harald Andersen, is because human bones are flimsier and break down faster than bones from large animals, for example horses.
- The skeleton, which was found under the floor in Jelling church, was in great anatomical disarray, which is generally taken as proof that it has been moved. But he shows that the groundwater under the church is very high, and the burial chamber may have occasionally been flooded, and the skeletal parts may have floated on top and thereby changed places. Moreover, if you had really moved the mortal remains of a king, you would probably have placed them as anatomically correct as possible; that is, the head up and the legs at the other end and the arms along the sides and so on. It is unlikely that the bones were simply thrown into the hole, as it appeared.
- Furthermore, he finds it unlikely that a notorious heathen would be buried in a Christian church.
- The age of the person found under the floor of Jelling Church - together with a year of death after 958 based on dendrochronology of the wood in the burial chamber, does not match the historical information about Gorm the Old and his son Harald Bluetooth. Adam of Bremen tells that in 936 Bishop Unni visited Jelling, where he met Gorm's son, Harald, who showed some understanding of Unni's case, unlike his father. "But the king's son Harald he must have won for himself by his godly eloquence. Yes, he attached him to Christ in such a way that he publicly allowed Christianity, which his father had always hated." But when Harald in 936 could thus allow Christianity, he must have been some kind of co-king already, i.e. not a child. Maybe at least 18 years old. But to have a son of that age, the second son, then a father must probably have been at least 40 years old in 936. Gorm died no earlier than 22 years later, therefore at the age of at least 62, very likely older. But the skeleton under the church floor was of a person who was 35-50 years old, when he died.
8. The Villages
The Vikings' explosive expansion including colonization of Danelagen, Normandy, the North Atlantic and parts of Russia can only be explained by a large surplus population in Scandinavia and that it now had become possible to sail relatively safe over the sea with the new type of ship, the Viking ship.
The reconstructed village from the Viking Age, Haithabu, can be traced back to the beginning of the 7th century as a trading place. It developed into an important market for Danish, Frisian, Saxon and Slawic merchants. King Godfred developed the city from around the year 800. Photo Aase og Thorkilds hjemmeside.
Sea kings ruled fleets of ships without fixed harbours. The ships were probably manned by men, who could not find their livelihood elsewhere, which indicates a large population pressure. The Widtsith poem, says: "Sigehere for many years ruled the Sea-Danes"; and Saxo tells about Roar and Helge: "They shared so the kingdom between them that Helge got the sea to rule"; and Adam of Bremen: "Guttovn, King Horic's nephew, who had been driven out of Denmark, and had lived as a pirate, in cooperation with his brother Harald, and having gathered a large number of ships, attacked their uncle. The result of the fight became that Horic and all his leading men were killed."
Endings on Danish place names for villages founded in the Roman and Germanic Iron Ages and the Viking Age.
Grain does not grow on the sea, so we must believe that all these sea kings and their men lived by plundering and pillaging along the coasts.
It is very likely that there had been a large population in Scandinavi in the Viking Age. However, it had not been possible either with pollen analysis or excavations to demonstrate that the villages were located particularly close, or they were very populous during this period.
But as the Scandinavians, who settled in The Danelaw area in England and Normandy in France, precisely in the years 800-900 named their new settlements in the same way as they most likely named numerous newly founded settlements and villages in Scandinavia itself during the same period, it must indicate a population expansion. These place names typically contain the endings:
-by like in Derby and Rødby,
-torp like in Scunthorpe and Kastrup,
-toft like in Thurdistoft and Gentofte.
-tved like in Stennestwatt and Næstved.
-dal like in Coalbrookdale and Kokkedal.
-bæk like in Holbeck at Leeds, Holbæk and Hornbæk.
Holeby on the island of Lolland. The suffix -by is typical for the Viking Age.
Since it is common knowledge that there are many of this type of village names in Denmark, one must conclude that at least some of these were founded in the Viking Age at the same time that villages with similar names were in the conquered parts of England and France. As these place name types are found in the thousands, it is a strong indication of a population's expansion also in Scandinavia.
The -by suffix has still retained its original meaning in modern Danish, namely like it is said "city", in the sense of a settlement, which is larger than an ordinary village. We know it for example in Brøndby, Dalby and Holeby. The first element seems in most cases to be a person's name.
Hemdrup in Vest Himmerland. The suffix -torp, which in time has become to -rup was used in Viking times, but also long after. Photo Hemdrup Lokaltindblik.
-torp names have in most cases changed to -strup or -rup as time passed by. There are around 3,500 names of the type -torp, -strup or -rup on old Danish area. Place names scientist Johannes Steenstrup concluded: "Torp is the settlement that has been built as a satellite settlement of another village, new settlers had founded a settlement on the older village's field or land." Newly built villages have been named so for a very long time. The oldest example of a -torp in Scandinavia is the mention of Sliesthorp in the Frankish annals for the year 804: "- at the same time the Danish king Godfred came with his fleet and the entire kingdom's cavalry to the place called Sliesthorp, on the border between his kingdom and Saxony". Therefore Sliesthorp must be older than 804. The youngest examples of -torp villages must be those, which contain a Christian name from the Bible as the first element, for example, Niels in Nielstrup near Svendborg and Peder in Pederstrup south of Odense.
Tåstrup - originally Thorstrup - Frøstrup and Tirstrup contain the Gods' names Thor, Frey and Tyr and may well have got their names from a form of presence of these gods. However, at least the name Thor was used as a personal name long into the Middle Ages, so that Tåstrup might have gotten its name from the peasant Thor, who founded this settlement.
Gentofte with the ending -toft. Photo SF.
-toft endings are very characteristic of place names of Scandinavian origin in Normandy, it is found in large numbers in both England and Denmark. It is said to represent a fenced area, which is separated from the village community to the use of a particular person. An older meaning was probably: a piece of land intended for living place for a particular person. Martofte on Hindsholm north of Kerteminde may have meant an enclosure with horses or just the peasant Mar's land. It is tempting to interpret Ebeltoft as a fencing, in which appletrees were growing. Assentoft near Randers means pretty surely the man Asser's toft, namely piece of land.
-tved as in Langtved between Kerteminde and Nyborg or Abbetved between Roskilde and Holbæk. The name Tved without first element is found in 12 different places in old Danish area. The ending is said to mean a clearing in the forest. However, it is hard to ignore that it also can mean forest. In Gjukunge Saga, Myrkved thus means "the dark forest". English has "wood", which can mean both a great forest and the material wood. Modern Danish has the word "ved" meaning the material wood. One can imagine that -tved meant a settlement in or near a large forest.
-dal contains definitely the Scandinavian "dal", which in modern English is called "valley". In Denmark, the ending among many other places can be found in Hjortdal in Han Herred, Sanddal south of Fredericia, Kokkedal south of Helsingør and Hylkedal near Kolding. In Denmark the first elements seem to denote animals or natural formations.
