Absolute monarchy in peace and prosperity
In his last will, which he wrote in 1723, Frederik 5. warned his son against choosing advisors from the old Danish nobility.
One of the fundamental ideas of absolute monarchy was that the monarch should be king for the entire people, with no intermediary class of noblemen. Yet only Frederik 5. attempted to live up to this ideal by making himself visible to the public and granting audiences to everyone on specific days of the week. The pietist Christian 6. remained unapproachable within his palace. Frederik 5. was effectively incapable of governing due to alcoholism. Christian 7. was insane, and Frederik 7. was likewise unfit for the role.
Having thus excluded themselves from recruiting generals and officials from the Danish nobility, who largely constituted the educated segment of the population, the kings were forced to look abroad. Schulin, Moltke, Bernstorff, and Schimmelmann were all German, and Saint-Germain was French. Nevertheless, they served Denmark’s interests loyally, with dedication and competence.
36. Christian 6.
The absolute monarchs sought to replace the noble cavalry units with a national cavalry force. Consequently, a portion of the extensive royal lands, which the kings had acquired during the Reformation, was designated as cavalry districts. Specific groups of peasants within these districts were required to provide one fully equipped cavalryman each in the event of war.
In 1720, there were 12 cavalry districts, representing 12 cavalry regiments.
In connection with the cavalry districts, a total of 240 more or less identical cavalry schools were established between 1721 and 1727. Many noble landowners followed suit and established schools for the children of the peasantry.
The cavalry schools marked a decisive turning point in Danish history. For the first time, ordinary people learned to read and write. Children received free of charge instruction in Christianity and reading, whereas writing and arithmetic required payment by parents. The cavalry schools are considered precursors to the public school system.
The Cavalry School at Brønshøj Torv. 149 nearly identical school buildings were constructed.
A sandstone plaque above the entrance bears a Danish-Latin inscription which, topped by the monogram of Frederik 6, begins as follows: "In the year 1721, I founded this school, along with 240 similar ones, in the districts established by me to permanently maintain 12 cavalry squadrons." Photo Thomas Hindsgaul Wikipedia.
In addition to the cavalry squadrons, Frederik established a type of home guard consisting of seven regiments intended to serve as a reserve for the regular army. However, they were disbanded under Christian 7. because the landowners were short of laborforce.
When Frederik 4. died in 1730, his pietist son, Christian 6. immediately banished his stepmother, Queen Anna Sophie Reventlow, from the court and stripped her of all her estates and properties. He held the view that, while she was merely of noble birth, the queen of an absolute monarch ought to be of princely lineage. Furthermore, he felt offended by his father’s many mistresses. Anna Sophie was sent to her childhood home, the Clausholm manor near Randers, and ordered not to leave the estate.
Christian 6. was Denmark's fourth absolute monarch. He was the first Danish king in several hundred years during whose reign there was no war.
King Christian has been described as "shy and awkward, anxious about responsibility and decisions, and deeply uncomfortable with carrying out his representative and ceremonial duties". Likewise, the royal couple are remembered for "their complete lack of public appearances, their strong Pietist commitment, and their pronounced German character".
Christian 6. sought all his spiritual inspiration in Germany and ensured that the queen's numerous relatives were given positions in Denmark.
The king and queen very rarely, if ever, appeared before the people. The palace was closed and inaccessible. When a carriage drove out, the curtains were drawn.
The king's ministers were largely Germans. Thus, the cautious foreign minister, Schulin, was the son of a clergyman from Bavaria. But regardless of his German background, he succeeded in steering Denmark-Norway clear of all wars. He followed in Griffenfeld's footsteps and sought to tie the kingdoms to Europe's leading power, France.
Christian 6. prohibited all amusements on Sundays. In 1735, he issued a regulation concerning public holidays that mandated compulsory church attendance, with failure to fulfil this duty resulting in fines or time in the pillory.
But this does not change the fact that he took many initiatives that contributed to the advancement of his kingdoms in happiness and prosperity.
On December 30, 1730, he abolished Copenhagen's privileges concerning trade in wine, spirits, salt, and tobacco. As justification, he stated that he had learned that the previous arrangement had not brought the capital the benefit that had been intended, and furthermore that it had been detrimental to other market towns in the realm.
Moreover, he wished that trading in goods for all his subjects should be "- free and unhindered".
King Christian stated: "My sentiment is this: I seek only the happiness of my subjects, for if they prosper, so do I, and they cannot prosper unless commerce and manufacturing flourish."
In order to solve the landowners' problems with a shortage of labour and thereby ensure the food supply, the home-bondage was introduced in 1733. Men between the ages of 14 and 36 were prohibited from leaving the estate on which they had been born.
Christian 6. 1699-1746, King of Denmark and Norway, Duke of Slesvig, Duke of Holsten, and Count of Oldenburg.
He was a serious and responsible king, but small and slight in stature and with a squeaky falsetto voice, and perhaps for that reason he appeared in public very rarely. Photo Wikimedia Commons.
The Moravian Church was a Protestant religious movement, that came to Denmark in 1727. They originated in Bohemia, from where they had been expelled by the Catholic Church. In 1722, they settled in the town of Herrnhut in Saxony as a Pietist brotherhood led by the German theologian and Pietist pastor, Zinzendorf. Moravian missionaries arrived in Greenland in 1733.
Pietism, promoted by the royal family, rejected the theatre, which was regarded as a form of frivolous entertainment. Lille Grønnegade Theatre, which staged plays in Danish, including Holberg's comedies, had to close. Apparently, this was not due to an actual prohibition, but rather because it was simply not in keeping with the spirit of the times, and audiences stopped attending.
Inspired by Pietism, Christian 6. made confirmation compulsory in Denmark in 1736. In order to be confirmed, one had to pass a test of knowledge of Christianity, which was documented by a confirmation certificate. Without a confirmation certificate, one was at a disadvantage in society, as it was a prerequisite for acting as a godparent, serving as a witness, and getting married.
Also in 1736, he introduced a legal degree examination at the University of Copenhagen.
Likewise, in 1736, he established the Kurant Bank, which issued banknotes, in order to promote the circulation of goods. It would become the forerunner of the National Bank.
In 1739, Christian 6. had Tugt- og Børnehuset built at Christianshavns Torv in Copenhagen, with room for 500 inmates, although only a small number of them were children. Most were "depraved people and wanton women" who, instead of living as unemployed people, criminals, beggars, or prostitutes, were put to work carding and spinning wool.
In Holberg's comedy, Maskerade from 1724, he has the frugal Jeronimus argue from a humane perspective that it is more sensible to give money to the poor than to go to a masquerade, but the economically astute Henrik replies: "Sir, there are two kinds of poor people in a country: some are idle paupers and others are industrious paupers. The idle paupers are those who go around begging and will not work - The industrious paupers are tailors, shoemakers, female vendors, macaroni and sugar-bread sellers, and cab drivers. To them we extend a helping hand."
In 1742, King Christian established Grosserer-societetet, which aimed to create a class of merchants and shipowners.
Under King Christian, a considerable state of military preparedness was maintained. As we have seen, there were 12 cavalry regiments. In 1739, the king was able to inaugurate a dry dock, today known as Gammel Dok, for use by the navy's ships.
Christian 6. died on August 6, 1746, at the age of 46, at Hirschholm Palace in Hørsholm. He was buried in Roskilde Cathedral and was succeeded by his son Frederik.
37. Frederik 5.
Frederik 5. was the fifth absolute king. His reign is remembered as a happy period of peace without wars.
Udsnit af maleri af Pilo af Frederik V af Danmark. Foto by Szilas in the national museum, Stockholm Wikimedia Commons.
At the Danish court in the early 1700s, mostly German was spoken. Frederik mastered the Danish language poorly, and throughout his life, he spoke better German than Danish. However, this did not prevent him from learning a little Danish, which he later used in private notes, albeit very clumsily. His mother called him "Der Dänische Prinz" because he occasionally spoke Danish.
He was a very kind, cheerful, and approachable person who gladly mingled with people from all social classes. He loved hunting, wine, and women, and together with his drinking companions, he roamed around the taverns and brothels of Copenhagen.
Even though he had grown up at a strictly pietistic court, he was never embraced by pietism himself.
The young Frederik's sexual appetite and alcohol consumption grew to such an extent that his father at one point considered declaring him legally incompetent. But his advisors convinced him, that this would not be wise. Firstly, it would be a violation of the Law of the absolute monarchy, Kongeloven, and secondly, it would be a problem for the absolute monarchy to admit that the heir to the throne was incapable of ruling.
Frederik lacked interest in governance, and as a king, he was weak and dependent. The power lay with Lord Chamberlain Moltke and Foreign Minister Bernstorff, who managed the state's interests with a steady hand in the daily affairs of government.
As crown prince, he was married in 1743 to prinsesse Louise af England.
In light of the reclusiveness and pietism of Frederik's royal parents, the crown prince couple quickly became very popular. Especially prinsesse Louise's natural and immediate nature and her interest in the lives of ordinary people aroused the love of the people.
The young royal couple had four children, including the later Christian 7.
Frederik 5.s reign - from 1746 to 1766 - is considered a happy and prosperous time, where the inhabitans of Copenhagen and other cities experienced a relaxed and joyful atmosphere after the pietistic period under Christian 6.
At the royal palace - in contrast to earlier times - balls and parties were held, to which bourgeois dignitaries were also invited, including Ludvig Holberg, who shares how comfortable he felt at Frederik's court.
The king supported Hans Egedes mission in Greenland.
During his time, Ludvig Holberg's comedies were performed in Danish at the Comedy House in Lille Grønnegade in Copenhagen.
But the young Frederik could not stay away from the orgies he had grown accustomed to. In addition to his four children with Queen Louise, he managed to have five children during the same period with his favorite mistress, Else Hansen, called Madam Hansen, namely four daughters and a son.
When Frederik became king in August 1746, his alcohol consumption had developed to such an extent that he was unable to lead a government alone, and he was completely dependent on leaning on his advisors. The real power thus came to lie in the hands of his advisors, who were Lord Chamberlain Adam Gottlob Moltke, diplomat and Foreign Minister Johann Hartwig Ernst Bernstorff, and the businessman Heinrich Carl Schimmelmann.
To the grief of the Copenhageners, Queen Louise died in connection with a pregnancy in 1751.
Detail of a painting of Lord Chamberlain Adam Gottlob Moltke (1760) by Gustaf Pilo. Wikipedia.
Moltke was born in Mecklenburg. However, he had some ties to Denmark, as his father, Lieutenant Colonel Joachim von Moltke, had served as a Danish officer. One of his uncles was Master of the stables for Prince Carl, brother of Frederik 4. while another served as the district governor of Møn, the latter secured a position for his nephew as a page to the then Crown Prince Christian. Later he was appointed chamber page to the seven-year-old Prince Frederik, the later king Frederik 5.
Upon the change of monarch in 1746, Moltke formulated a set of governing principles for his king: "Since it is not possible for a ruler to concern himself with every detail of his administration, and since a council and specialized administrative boards have therefore been established, it would be desirable for the king to appoint individuals who, through their wisdom, competence, integrity, and experience, prove worthy of his trust. In return, the king should place his full confidence in his ministers, neither lending an ear to gossip nor subjecting individuals to surveillance, for a man who does not feel trusted will act with apprehension and will often be inclined to think more of his own position than of the welfare of the state, never daring to speak his true mind. The king should indeed dismiss those who betray that trust, yet show forbearance toward those who err out of human frailty."
Moltke warned against listening to those, who propose dramatic changes to the existing order. It is better to reform gradually than to "overturn everything", —"There is nothing more harmful to a state than constant change".
Moltke made no attempt to curb either Frederik’s sexual appetite or his alcohol consumption, however, he retained the king’s trust, a factor that proved crucial after Frederik’s accession to the throne. The foundation of state governance from 1746 to 1766 was Frederik 5.’s unwavering trust in Moltke.
Bernstorff was born in Hanover into a family of landowners with a tradition of producing diplomats and civil servants. After completing his university education, he undertook a Grand Tour of Europe from 1729 to 1731, studying the legal, cultural, political, economic, and military conditions of various nations. He spoke fluent French but never learned to speak Danish well.
Thanks to family connections, he entered the service of the Danish-Norwegian king under Foreign Minister Schulin and carried out a number of diplomatic assignments. Upon Schulin's death in 1750 , he became foreign minister, as Schulin had already singled him out prior to his passing.
The historian P. Vedel believed that Bernstorff had well-defined foreign policy objectives. which was to pursue a decidedly peaceful policy and constantly strive "to preserve the neutrality of Denmark-Norway" in the event of "a general European war", to "maintain effective military preparedness", "to unite the country within its natural borders", and "to erase the last traces of the ruinous partitions of the duchies carried out by earlier kings".
Johan Hartvig Ernst Bernstorff. Photo Louis Tocque - Own photo reproduction of an expired work of art. Wikipedia
Businessman and treasurer Heinrich Carl Schimmelmann was born in the town of Demmin in Pomerania in 1724, the son of a merchant. He likely received no education beyond what a boy could obtain in a small German town. He succeeded in becoming a supplier to the Prussian army during the Seven Years' War and profited handsomely, but he lost the money after being robbed by Saxon cavalrymen. Shortly thereafter, he established a supply business in Dresden and once again became a supplier to the Prussian army. He purchased the Meissen porcelain factory and later sold it at a substantial profit.
However, due to the turbulent conditions in Prussia, he moved all his business operations to Hamburg in 1759. There, he purchased the Ahrensburg estate in Holstein - on the other side of the Elbe - thereby becoming a subject of the Danish-Norwegian king. Bernstorff took note of this, and before long, Schimmelmann was appointed to the government of Denmark-Norway as Treasurer, a role similar to that of a finance minister.
Schimmelmann, for his part, was likely attracted to Denmark-Norway’s policy of neutrality, which offered opportunities for unhindered global trade..
In Denmark, Schimmelmann, serving as treasurer, played a decisive role in resolving the financial crisis that arose from the costs of keeping a large army mobilized during the years 1761 and 1762. He secured foreign loans on favorable terms and levied an unpopular per-capita extra tax across all the King's territories.
In 1768, Schimmelmann, together with Bernstorff, streamlined Danish agriculture based on the Holstein model. In 1776, he was involved in an ambitious but unsuccessful attempt to expand whaling in the North Atlantic. In 1778, he was a driving force behind the establishment of the West India Trading Company, a trading enterprise intended to capitalize on opportunities arising during the American War of Independence. He owned the Hellebæk rifle factory north of Helsingør, a sugar refinery in Copenhagen, and four sugar plantations in the Danish West Indies.
After the death of Peter the Great in 1725, his daughter Elizabeth Petrovna became Tsarina of Russia - following an interlude involving the underage Ivan 6. Elizabeth’s sister was Anna, who was married to the deposed Duke Karl Frederik of Holsten-Gottorp. As Elizabeth was childless, she adopted her sister’s son, Karl Peter Ulrich, as the future Tsar of Russia, much like Margaret 1. had once adopted the young Bugislaw and made him Eric of Pomerania.
Russia was at war with Prussia during the Seven Years' War 1756 to - 1763. Nevertheless, the young Peter hated Denmark and admired Prussia, and he made no secret that when he became Tsar, he intended to launch a Russian attack on Denmark-Norway in alliance with Prussia in order to restore the Duke of Gottorp's rights. This compelled the Danish government to mobilize an army of 25,000 to 30,000 men.
Bernstorff was fully aware of the highly perilous situation. Recognizing that the absolute monarchy lacked domestic military experts of this caliber, in 1761 he persuaded the French general Claude Louis de Saint Germain to enter Danish service and take command of the Danish army. Even during his initial, cursory inspection, the general delivered a scathing critique of the troops' condition.
Furthermore, Saint-Germain provided the following description of the situation in Denmark: "The dominance of the nobility has been eradicated only in appearance. The nobility still rules, and fearing that the king might become all-powerful in domestic affairs should he gain prestige abroad, they oppose his having an army. The current army is merely a sham. The nobility's supremacy within the state rests on the dominion they have retained over their estates. The noblemen are petty despots, to be regarded more as vassals owing tribute than as subjects. How did this dominion come about? Through the decrees establishing the rural militia. This militia, which is useless for the defense of the kingdom, serves simultaneously as a means to oppress the common people and as an obstacle to the proper composition of the army. This is the true reason why infantry troops are recruited from abroad at great expense, drawn from the dregs of Germany."
Zarina Katarina 2. of Rusland. Photo Imdvor.ru
On January 5. 1762, Tsarina Elizabeth Petrovna died, and Karl Peter Ulrich of Gottorp became Tsar of Russia as Peter 3.
On August 16. 1862, the Prussian King Frederik the Great wrote in his diary that Russian forces under Marshal Saltykov had crossed the Oder and were preparing to attack the Prussian capital, Berlin. Frederik had assembled 33,000 men for a final, desperate battle against a superior force he estimated to total 90,000 men.
But suddenly, the Prussians saw the Russians withdrawing. Instead, they proposed a separate peace, renouncing all their conquests and offering an alliance against Denmark. Frederik called the event "the Miracle of the House of Brandenburg". The great Russian army then marched - on the new Tsar's orders - against Denmark instead.
As early as the days between July 9. and 12. 1762, Saint-Germain had crossed the Trave River with the Danish army and advanced into Mecklenburg.
Bernstorff noted that neither France nor Austria "bound by the most solemn treaties" to provide assistance, had a single soldier to spare. He summed up the situation: "The best thing is to have friends, the next best is to know in time that one has none." In Berlin, Frederik the Great remarked that the Danish ministers were so frightened "that they are ready to drown themselves for fear of being shot."".
General Saint Germain had little faith in victory. He urged Frederik 5 to make peace, regardless of the terms: ""Peace is better than a war that will crush us." However, Moltke and Bernstorff were determined to take up the fight. Bernstorff wrote, "I hope that we will put up a good defense, or at least hold out for a long time."
The Danish army scouts had already been in contact with the advancing enemy for several days, when they suddenly observed the Russians withdrawing. Shortly thereafter, news arrived that Tsar Peter 3. had been arrested by his queen, Catherine, as early as July 9. 1762, and subsequently killed in prison. Catherine had seized power herself, with the support of the Imperial Guard and the Orlov brothers, and immediately ordered the Russian troops to return home.
"The King's lucky star has worked a miracle," wrote Saint Germain to Moltke. Moltke, for his part, wrote in his notes: "But when the danger was greatest, the faithful God, who has never abandonned Denmark, was also closest."
The facts was that Peter 3. had long been a source of irritation to the Russians. He often behaved unpredictably and childishly. He never learned to speak Russian properly and surrounded himself with a small group of Holstenian mercenaries. He admired Prussia boundlessly. Even as an adult, he would sometimes lock himself in his room and reenact famous battles with toy soldiers, imagining himself to be Frederik the Great's right-hand man.
As mentioned above, after Peter ascended the Russian throne, one of the first things he did was to make peace with Prussia in the Seven Years' War and give up all Russian conquests, to the great dismay of the Russians.
Detail of a painting of the international businessman Heinrich Carl Schimmelmann. Painted by Stefano Torelli. - The original uploader was "Der Bischof mit der E-Gitarre" at tysk Wikipedia. Wikipedia.
Under Frederik 5, the period of economic prosperity, that had also characterized his father's reign despite the influence of Pietism, continued. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences was founded in 1742, and the Royal Danish Theatre opened in 1748, featuring works such as Ludvig Holberg’s comedies. Amalienborg Palace was built in 1748, Berlingske Tidende was first published in 1749, and the Royal Danish Academy of Art was established in 1754.
As can be seen, and to the great benefit of Denmark-Norway’s international trade, the kingdoms narrowly managed to stay out of the first global conflict between great powers, namely the Seven Years' War, which encompassed the colonial war between England and France from 1755 to 1763.
Frederik 5. died on January 14. 1766, at the age of 43, following a hard life marked by Excesses. Despite his personal weaknesses, he was popular among the people, and his reign is remembered as a period of cultural and economic progress, supported, as he was, by loyal and capable officials such as Schulin, Moltke, Bernstorff and Schimmelmann, all of whom were German.
38. Christian 7.
Christian VII is remembered as "the insane king" or "the mad king," and there is strong evidence to suggest that he suffered from schizophrenia.
The young Christian’s intelligence and quick understanding of things led to that high expectations being placed upon him. He could easily recount what he had learned, and his quick, sardonic remarks revealed an eye for the weaknesses of those around him. His ability to mimic the court chaplains and the "wigs", as he called the ministers, was seen as a talent for acting.
Very fast he became fluent in Danish, German, and French. It is said, that he spoke danish "better than any Danish king in a long time." He was a good dancer and, in general, knew how to carry himself with great dignity.
However, it has since been recognized that he suffered from schizophrenia, formerly known as "dementia praecox", a disorder characterized by restlessness, involuntary movements and grimacing, anxiety, and fits of rage alternating with long periods of lethargy, as well as psychosis, which means experience phenomena that are not real, such as hearing voices or perceiving imaginary persecutors, and, more generally, a distorted perception of reality.
Schizophrenia often emerges during puberty.
But in the case of the young Christian, the disease was difficult to recognize in its early stages, because the symptoms could be perceived as the difficulties of a spoiled boy in managing his power.
According to his teacher, E.S.F. Reverdil, he would sit for long periods gazing at his hand while pricking his stomach with it, making mysterious remarks about "hardening himself" and training to achieve complete insensitivity to both his own pain and that of others. In his own "reality," he was one of six people born morally blind, and he had to prove himself worthy of this company.
Christian 7. in 1768, painted by Nathaniel Dance-Holland. Wikipedia.
In the following years, he sought to acquire this ability by surrounding himself with a rough and brutal circle of associates.
His morbid imagination ceaselessly revolved around the "state of perfection," oscillating between extreme overestimation of himself and panickly fear. The former manifested as emotional coldness toward others, while the latter resulted in slavish submission to those who held power over him through brutal behavior.
At times, he believed he was a changeling and dreaded the task awaiting him as king. At other times, he wished to run away and start "from the bottom" in order to reach the top of society through his own abilities.
A Russian diplomat later remarked that "the King has no heart that inclines him to love his fellow human beings.".
His father, Frederik 5., died on 14 January 1766, at the age of just 42 years. During his final years, he was rarely sober. Twice, he broke his leg while intoxicated, resulting in long periods of confinement to his sickbed. At the time of his death, he suffered from severe fluid retention in his legs, indicating kidney or liver problems.
On the same day, the 17-year-old Christian 7. was proclaimed King from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace by Bernstorff, after which he stepped out onto the balcony himself and waved his hat to the assembled crowd. At that time, he had not yet turned 17.
Christian 7. was the sixth absolute monarch of Denmark and Norway.
It was also in 1766 that the wedding took place between Christian and his cousin, the 15-year-old Caroline Matilda of Great Britain, sister of the English King George 3.
Christian struggled with his love life. He visited the queen in her chambers only reluctantly, and his tutor, Reverdil, had to step in and write love letters on the king's behalf.
But in January 1768, Queen Caroline Mathilde gave birth to the couple's presumably only child, the future Frederik 6.
Even while married, the king continued to associate with his drinking companions. Together with the prostitute Anna Cathrine Benthagen, nicknamed "Boot-Cathrine", the young king and his cronies roamed the city’s taverns and brothels, where he jeopardized his royal dignity by smashing the furnishings. Mirrors, in particular, were frequent targets of his destructive impulses.
During these nightly rambles, he might be recognized and met with jeers from the "mob".
The king and his band of troublemakers were always ready for a spirited little brawl, even with the forces of law and order. In the morning, he could proudly display a "morning star" captured from a watchman.
Eventually, the night watchmen complained to the court. The government intervened and arranged for "Boot-Cathrine" to be deported to Holsten, where she received an annual allowance of 400 rigsdalers.
Suhm portrays "Boot-Cathrine" as "not beautiful, but refined, bold, and indifferent", meaning that, like the king, she did not seek a genuine erotic connection, and that she, too, possessed psychologically deviant personality traits. Karl of Hessen refers to her as "the most notorious person in Copenhagen.".
The young king made chaos within the government. When proponents of reforms flattered him by calling him a born enlightened monarch, after all, he had read Voltaire, and urged him to model his rule on his great idol, they easily got his approval.
Just a week after the change of monarch, the King dismissed Saint-Germain. He remarked to Reverdil with a gleeful malice: "He has taken the leap." As early as July 1766,Moltke was suddenly dismissed from all his key offices, and that without a pension, while away on a brief trip to his estate on Zealand.
On May 6, 1768, the king set out on the traditional Grand European Tour with an entourage of 55 people. Both Bernstorff and Schimmelmann accompanied him, filled with fearful forebodings. However, the journey proceeded relatively smoothly, aside from the king suffering several fits of rage and damaging hotel furnishings. Yet, to the outside world, Christian showed his best side and made a good impression.
Only the English writer Horace Walpole took note of the king's restlessness: "He rushes from one end of England to the other without examining anything closely, exhausting himself and ruining his carriages."
d'Alembert was one of the French Encyclopedists of 1751–72. He was a mathematician and physicist. La Tours pastel af Jean le Rond d'Alembert Didier Descouens og one more author Wikipedia
The party traveled via Germany and the Netherlands to England, where the king received honorary titles from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. From there, they proceeded to Paris, where they stayed for an extended period and the king met the Enlightenment philosophers d'Alembert and Diderot.
Bernsdorff was pleasantly surprised by the King’s impeccable public behaveour. Yet, time and again, he returns to the astonishing lack of interest the King displayed, not only in matters of state but also in the vast array of entertainment organized everywhere for the royal guest. Only "the most simple amusements appealed to him. Strolls, plays, and ladies were a burden to him", only "his prefernce for the bizarre and his readiness to offer scornful criticism could rouse him to life."
The King's German physician during the journey, Johann Friedrich Struense, was permitted to travel to Copenhagen. In August 1768, the traveling party returned to Copenhagen.
Struense won the trust of the 17-year-old Queen Caroline Mathilde by curing her son. The King took no interest in her, and she lived a rather isolated life at the unpredictable and eerie Danish court; she was glad to find a trusted confidant. It was likely in May 1769 that Struense began an intimate relationship with the Queen. He probably gained the King's absolute trust by discussing Voltaire and Enlightenment philosophy with him.
Struense was appointed royal physician and, in May 1769, was appointed State Councillor. In early 1770, he was appointed Cabinet Secretary to the Queen and Reader to the King. It must have been at this time, that he began to got ideas of a more powerful position.
Also in 1770, Struense succeeded in removing the king’s old drinking companion, Count Holck, from the king’s side. He was replaced by Struense’s co-conspirator, Enevold Brandt.
On September 15. 1770, he finally found a pretext to have Bernstorff removed. The reason was that, in May 1770, Bernstorff had dispatched four line ships, two frigates, and two bomb vessels against Algerian pirates in the Mediterranean, as they had attacked numerous Danish-Norwegian ships. However, the attack failed due to onshore winds, technical issues with the bomb vessels, and illness among the crews.
On December 10, 1770, he dissolved "gehejmekonseilet", which was the government, and appointed himself "maître des requetes," meaning "head of petitions."
As "maitre des requetes", it was Struense’s duty to present petitions to the king. Struense merely had to order the king to sign the papers, and he would obey. Struense instituted a system of cabinet government with himself as the king’s sole minister. The king’s condition deteriorated into increasing lethargy, and Struense effectively became an Enlightenment-style dictator.
The reforms came as a hailstorm. Public appointments were to be based on qualifications, there was to be unconditional freedom of speech, the influence of the landed gentry was to be curtailed, children born out of wedlock were granted equal status with those born within marriage, a public lottery was established, he abolished monopolies and import bans, all houses were required to display painted street numbers, and with "the great holiday reform" of 1770, he abolished a large number of holidays and merged them into Great Prayer Day.
The West India Warehouse in Copenhagen. Photo Nico-dk (talk) 16:33, 15 September 2009 (UTC)/Nils Jepsen Wikipedia.
But we recall Moltke’s admonition to Frederik 5. in 1746: "It is better to reform slowly than to overturn everything at the same time" – "There is nothing more harmful to a state than constant change.".
And that is what happened. The people did not welcome all these modern ideas with open arms.
Even more disapproved was Struense’s relationship with the queen. His intimate relationship with Caroline Mathilde was common knowledge, and this fueled the widespread belief that Struense was holding the king hostage. Rumors circulated that Struense intended to stage a coup. He planned to force the king to abdicate and install himself as king instead, with Caroline Mathilde as his queen.
On January 17. 1772, at four o'clock in the morning, Dowager Queen Juliane Marie, the second wife of Frederik 5., and Professor in theology Ove Høegh-Guldberg summoned Colonel Köller of the 2. Grenadier Company of the Falster Regiment, which was then on duty, and ordered him to arrest Struense and Brandt. The colonel carried out this order. The order was not signed by the King, making the operation essentially a coup, but the colonel and his superiors had been informed in advance and were in agreement with the plan.
The following night, the people of Copenhagen followed up on the coup against immorality at court with "the great sweeping-out party," during which they stormed "the notorious houses" in the capital.
The deposed Bernstorff wrote: "So this revolution has taken place, the first of its kind to occur in Denmark. I regret that it was necessary, but I cannot hide from myself the fact, that it has saved the King and the state."
As early as April 25, 1772, Struense was convicted of "insult to the monarchy" and abuse of power due to his relationship with Queen Caroline Mathilde. The sentence entailed the forfeiture of honor, life, and property. He was condemned to lose his right hand and be beheaded, after which his body was to be quartered and displayed on the wheel.
The charges against Enevold Brandt emphasized that he had beaten the king during an argument in 1771. The judges classified this as "insult to the monarchy". Enevold Brandt was sentenced to a punishment similar to that of Struense.
The sentence was carried out on 28. April 1772 at Øster Fælled in Copenhagen. Enevold Brandt was executed first.
A spectator reported that "almost all the town's inhabitants had flocked out there, by carriage, on horseback, and on foot, of both sexes and all ages", and all the town's streets lay empty, so that one might think "the plague had visited the city."
"A young man from Holmen,", according to a contemporary account, said, when Struense's head fell: "That is enough now. They could well do without the rest" (he was referring to the quartering).
The execution of Struense and Brandt at Østre Fælled in April 1772, contemporary engraving. "A Copenhagen Official: Memoirs and Letters", Vol. XXVII. Julius Clausen & P. Fr. Rist (eds.) Wikipedia.
The period spanning the outbreak of the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763, the American War of Independence 1775 - 1783, the French Revolution 1789 – 1792, and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars 1792–1815 until the British attack on Denmark in 1807, is known as the "Flourishinera," as Danish and Norwegian shipowners and merchants capitalized on the neutrality of the kingdoms by trading worldwide. It was a time of great prosperity for Danish and Norwegian shipping and commerce.
But as we shall see, for Denmark and Norway, the economic boom came to an abrupt end with the unprovoked British attack in 1807..
After the coup of January 1772, the conditions at the Danish court remained largely as they had been during the Struense period, but with different key figures and a policy less rooted in Enlightenment philosophy.
Simply because "Kongeloven" provided no guidelines on what should be done in the event that the king was unable to rule for personal or mental reasons.
Queen Dowager Juliane Marie and her son, Hereditary Prince Frederik, took seats in the new government. Ove Høegh-Guldberg became head of government. The elder Bernstorff’s nephew, Andreas Peter Bernstorff, again became Minister of Foreign Affairs. Almost all of Struense’s reforms were rolled back.
The King experienced no significant change in his circumstances. He remained in isolation, only his overseer had been replaced. He attended numerous official dinners and took part in Council of State meetings almost daily, signing documents whose contents he neither knew nor understood. If he refused to sign, the ministers simply waited until he changed his mind.
However, the Høegh-Guldberg government itself fell victim to a palace revolution. They had deliberately postponed the confirmation of Crown Prince Frederik, the future Frederik 6., which would have affirmed his status as an adult. But by 1784, he had reached the age of 16 years old, and the event could no longer be delayed.
He was confirmed on April 4, and on April 14, 1784, he appeared at the Council as a full member. As the first item on the agenda, the Crown Prince read out a resolution abolishing the cabinet government, which he immediately presented to the King, who signed it as was his custom.
An actual physical fighting broke out between the Hereditary Prince and the Crown Prince Frederik over the person of the King.
Both princes were slight of build and not particularly strong, moreover, the Hereditary Prince was sickly and suffered from a congenital curvature of the spine. Consequently, the Crown Prince carried the day despite his small stature and maintained his hold over his royal father.
Ove Høegh-Guldberg was born in 1731 into modest circumstances. His father was a merchant and undertaker in Horsens. An uncle, the priest Dines Guldberg, supported his studies, and he also worked as a private tutor during his university years. He published several books on theology as well as a three-volume world history, which was released between 1768 and 1772, although it only covered events up to the end of the Peloponnesian War, nonetheless it demonstrated the author's extensive knowledge. For three years, he served as a professor of rhetoric at Sorø Academy. Ove Høegh-Guldberg became a rallying point for those, who believed there were too many foreigners in the state administration. Painted by Jens Juel around 1780. Wikipedia.
After the coup, actual power was transferred to the Council of State under Crown Prince Frederik, who subsequently assumed the title of Crown Prince Regent. Andreas Peter Bernstorff, nephew of the elder Bernstorff, continued as Minister of Foreign Affairs until his death in 1797, when he was succeeded by his 28-year-old son, Christian Günther Bernstorff, who held the post until after the English Wars.
However, formally, Christian 7. was still the absolute monarch. Thus it was him, who, on 8. June 1787, signed the law abolishing of the peasants "Bondage to the soil". Likewise, on 16. March 1792, he signed the Ordinance on the Negro Trade, although it did not take effect until 1803.
Christian 7. died in Rendsburg on March 13, 1808, following a stroke, at the age of 59. It is said that he died of fright at the sight of the Spanish auxiliary troops, whom he mistook for enemies.
He was succeeded by his son Frederik 6., who, however, had long held the actual power. He was the seventh absolute monarch.
